Tẹ́lískópù Òfurufú Hubble

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Tẹ́lískópù Òfurufú Hubble
HST-SM4.jpeg
The Hubble Space Telescope as seen from the departing Ọkọ̀-àlọbọ̀ Òfurufú Atlantis, flying Servicing Mission 4 (STS-125), the fifth and final human spaceflight to visit the observatory.
Àròyé gbogbogbo
NSSDC ID 1990-037B
Àgbàjọ NASA / ESA / STScI
Ọjọ́ ìgbéra April 24, 1990, 8:33:51 am EDT[1][2]
Ọkọ̀ tófi gbéra Ọkọ̀-àlọbọ̀ Òfurufú Discovery (STS-31)
Ìgbà ìránlọṣe ọdún 22,  osù 1, àti ọjọ́ 7 elapsed
Kúrò lọ́nà-àyípo due ~2013–2021[3][4]
Àkọ́jọ 11,110 kg (24,500 lb)
Irú ọ̀nà-àyípo Near-circular low Earth orbit
Ìga ọ̀nà-àyípo 559 km (347 mi)
Àkókò ọ̀nà-àyípo 96–97 minutes (14-15 periods per day)
Ìmúyára ọ̀nà-àyípo 7,500 m/s (25,000 ft/s)
Ìmúsáré nítorí agbárá ìfàmọ́ra 8.169 m/s2 (26.80 ft/s2)
Ibùgbé Low Earth orbit
Telescope style Ritchey–Chrétien reflector
Ìbú ìrúkèrúlẹ̀ visible light, ultraviolet, near-infrared
Ìdákọjá 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Collecting area 4.5 m2 (48 sq ft)[5]
Ìbú ìtẹjúmọ́ 57.6 m (189 ft)
Àwọn irinṣẹ́
NICMOS infrared camera/spectrometer
ACS optical survey camera
(partially failed)
WFC3 wide field optical camera
COS ultraviolet spectrograph
STIS optical spectrometer/camera
FGS three fine guidance sensors
Ibiìtakùn hubble.nasa.gov/
hubblesite.org/
spacetelescope.org

Tẹ́lískópù Òfurufú Hubble tabi Agbéwọ̀ọ́kán Òfurufú Hubble (Hubble Space Telescope; HST tabi TOH) je teliskopu ofurufu kan to je gbigbe lo sinu onaayipo pelu Oko Alobo kan ni 1990, to si wa nibe latigba na. O je teliskopu to ni enu-iwole imole 2.4-meter (7.9 ft), o si wa ni onaayipo isale Aye, awon irinse mererin pataki Hubble le sakiyesi ni itanka eti inuaro, alafojuri, ati eti inupupa. Teliskopu na je sisoloruko fun atorawo Edwin Hubble.

Ona-ayipo Hubble to wa niwaju ibi idilona ojuayika Aye gba laaye lati ya awon aworan to han kedere lai si ina eyin. Aworan Papa Ijin De le Hubble, fun apere lo je aworan afojuri ina to kunrere julo fun ohun to jinna to je yiya ni foto ni agbala aye. Opo awon akiyesi Hubble ti fa ojutu isoro ninu sayensi fisiksionirawo, bi sise bi agbala aye se unfe si gerege.

Bo tilejepe ki se teliskopu ofurufu akoko, Hubble je ikan ninu awon to tobijulo ati to se e mulo fun orisirisi ise, ati ohun iwadi to se pataki ati ohun ibasepo igboro fun itorawo. TOH je kiko latowo ile-ise eto ofurufu Amerika NASA, pelu ifikun latodo Ile-ise Ofurufu Europe, o si unje mimusise latowo Space Telescope Science Institute. Teliskopu na je ikan ninu awon Ibi Isakiyesi Gbangba ti NASA, lapapo mo Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, Chandra X-ray Observatory, ati Teliskopu Ofurufu Spitzer.[6]

Awon teliskopu ofurufu je dida laba lati odun 1923. Owo fun iko Hubble bere sini je kikojo ni ewadun 1970s, pelu ireti pe yio gbera ni 1983, sugbon o ku seyin nitori isoro isise, inawo ati ijamba Challenger. Nigba to gbeyin gbera ni 1990, awon onimo sayensi ri pe jigi iwaju re ko duro daada, eyi fa ko mo sise boseye. Iranlose se atunse eyi ni 1993.

Hubble ni teliskopu kan soso to je sise lati se atunse re ninu ofurufu latowo awon arinlofurufu. Larin 1993 ati 2002, iranlose merin se atunse, isodotun ati won se idipo awon sistemu ninu teliskopu na; iranlose karun je fifagile fun abo leyin ijamba Columbia. Sugbon leyin iforowero igboro to waye, oludari NASA Mike Griffin fase si iranlose atunse to gbeyin, eyi waye ni 2009. Ireti ni pe teliskopu na yio sise titi di 2014 o kereju. Eyi ti yio ropo re ni Teliskopu Ofurufu James Webb (JWST), eyi yio gbera ni 2018 tabi leyin igba yi.

Àwọn àkóónú

[àtúnṣe] Idaro, ida ati awon afojusun

[àtúnṣe] Ìdámọ̀ràn àtí àwọn asíwájú

Ni 1923, Hermann Oberth — to je gbigba bi baba ise roketi ayeodeoni, lapapo mo Robert H. Goddard ati Konstantin Tsiolkovsky — setewejade Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("Roketi sinu Ofurufu Planeti"; "The Rocket into Planetary Space"), to fenu ba bawo ni teliskopu se le je mu jijulo sinu ona-ayika Aye pelu roketi.[7]

Itan Teliskopu Ofurufu Hubble se wa seyin de odun 1946, nigbati atorawo Lyman Spitzer ko iwe-ayoka kan to unje "Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory" (Awon anfani itorawo ibi-isakiyesi ojuorun).[8] Ninu re, o jiroro nipa awon anfan pataki meji ti ibi-isakiyesi to budo si ofurufu ni lori awon teliskopu to budo si ori ile. Akoko, igbehan onigun (ijinna kekerejulo nibi ti awon ohunkan se le e damo) yio je sisaropin lasan latowo igedakoja, kaka ko je latowo iji ni oju-ayika, to unje ki awon irawo o tan yinrinyinrin, to je mimo bi iwo latowo awon atorawo. Lasiko na awon teliskopu ibudo ori ile igbana ni igbehan ti ko din ju 0.5–1.0 arcseconds lo, ti a ba fiwe mo igbehan 0.05 arcsec ti igedakoja saropin yio ni fun teliskopu pelu jigi ti idakoja re je 2.5 m. Ekeji, teliskopu ibudo ofurufu le sakiyesi imole oninupupa ati oninuaro, ti won le sonu soju-ayika fun teliskopu ibudo ori ile.

Spitzer lo gbogbo asiko ise re si pipe fun igbedide teliskopu ofurufu. Ni 1962, ijabo iwadi Akademi awon Sayensi Orile-ede Amerika da aba igbedide teliskopu ofurufu gege bi apa eto ofurufu, ati ni 1965 Spitzer je yiyansipo bi olori igbimo ti ise re je lati setoka ona sayensi fun teliskopu ofurufu ninla.[9]

Itorawo ibudo ofurufu ti bere diedie leyin Ogun Agbaye 2k, bi awon onimo sayensi se lo awon igbedide to ti waye ninu oroiseona rọ́kẹ̀tì. Ìgbàjá-àwọ̀ onínúaró àkọ́kọ́ ti Òrùn jẹ́ rírí ní 1946,[10] NASA sì ṣègbéra Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) láti gba àwọn ìgbàjá UV, ìtànká-X (X-ray), àti ìtànká gamma ní 1962.[11] Tẹ́lískópù ọ̀nà-àyípo òrùn kan jẹ́ gbígbérá ní 1962 látọwọ́ Ilẹ̀ọba Aṣọ̀kan bíi apá ètò òfurufú Ariel, bẹ́ẹ̀sìni ní 1966 NASA ṣègbéra ìránlọṣe Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) àkọ́kọ́. Bátìrì OAO-1 kùnà lẹ̀yìn ọjọ́ mẹ́ta, èyí fi òpin sí ìránlọṣe náà. OAO-2 tó rọ́pò rẹ̀ ṣe àkíyèsí onínúaró àwọn ìràwọ̀ àti gáláksì láti ìgbà ìgbéra rẹ̀ ní 1968 títí di 1972, èyí pẹ́ ju ọdún kan tí wọ́n gbèrò fun lọ.[12]

Àwọn ìránlọṣe OSO àti OAO fihàn bí àwọn àkíyèsí ibùdó òfurufú ṣe ṣe pàtàkì sí nínú ìtòràwọ̀, bó sì ṣe di 1968, NASA ṣàgbédìde àwọn ètò gidi fún tẹ́lískópù alátànpadà pẹ̀lú jígí tí ìdákọjá rẹ̀ jẹ́ 3 m, tó jẹ́ mímọ̀ nígbà náà bíi Large Orbiting Telescope tàbí Large Space Telescope (LST), tí yíò gbéra ní 1979. Awon eto yi tenumo bi o se se pataki fun awon iranlose itoju pelu awon eniyan lo si teliskopu na lati ri pe iru eto alewo na ni emi ojo pipe, besini igbedide lasiko kanna eto fun and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable oko alobo alatunmulo fihan pe oroiseona ti yio gba eyi laye ko ni pe waye.[13]

[àtúnṣe] Ìpèsè owó fún kíkọ́ rẹ̀

Ni 1974, Kongresi jawo inawo fun eto teliskopu na.[14] Nitorie opo awon atorawo bere ipade pelu awon asoju ati alagba asofin lati ri pe owo ko ja lori igbedidide re. Nigbeyin Kongresi pinu lati da inawo re si abo.[15]

Nitori aito owo lo fa ti European Space Agency se pinu lati pese owo ati irinse fun teliskopu na, ati batiri olorun ti yio fun ni agbara, ati awon osise lati sise lori teliskopu na ni Amerika, fun eyi won yio fun awon atorawo ara Europe ni 15% asiko isakiyesi lori teliskopu na.[16] Nigbeyin Kongresi fi ase si ipese owo to to US$36,000,000 fun 1978, be sini iyaeto LST bere, pelu ero lati gbera ni 1983.[15] Ni 1983 teliskopu na je sisoloruko[17] fun Edwin Hubble, eni to sewari ikan ninu awon awari sayensi orundun 20k nigbato sawari pe agbala aye unfesi.[18]

[àtúnṣe] Ìkọ́ àti iṣẹ́ẹ̀rọ

Won un nu jigi akoko Hubble ni ile-ise Perkin-Elmer, Danbury, Connecticut, March 1979. Oniseero inu awon ni Dr. Martin Yellin, oniseero oniiriran to unsise fun Perkin-Elmer lori iseowo na.

Leyin ti iseowo Teliskopu Ofurufu na ti gba ase, ise bere kiakia lori re, o si je pinpin larin opo awon ile-ise. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) lo gba ase lati daeto, sagbedide ati ko teliskopu na, nigbati Goddard Space Flight Center gba ase isejanu apapo awon irinse sayensi ati gbongan ibi ikojanu ori ile fun iranlose na.[19] MSFC gbe ise fun ile-ise isiseiriran Perkin-Elmer lati daeto ati ko Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA) ati Fine Guidance Sensors fun teliskopu na. Lockheed gba ise lati ko ati searomo oko-ofurufu ti teliskopu na yio duro si.[20]

[àtúnṣe] Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)

Optically, the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey-Chrétien design, as are most large professional telescopes. This design, with two hyperbolic mirrors, is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view, with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test. The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance, and they were designed to exacting specifications. Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet (shorter wavelengths) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment. Therefore its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers, or about 1/65 of the wavelength of red light.[21] On the long wavelength end, the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind — for example, the mirrors are kept at stable (and warm, about 15 °C) temperatures by heaters. This limits Hubble's performance as an infrared telescope.[22]

Perkin-Elmer intended to use custom-built and extremely sophisticated computer-controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape.[20] However, in case their cutting-edge technology ran into difficulties, NASA demanded that PE sub-contract to Kodak to construct a back-up mirror using traditional mirror-polishing techniques.[23] (The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work. Their bid called for the two companies to double-check each other's work, which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused such problems.[24]) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the Smithsonian Institution.[25][26] An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2.4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory.[27]

Construction of the Perkin-Elmer mirror began in 1979, starting with a blank manufactured by Corning from their ultra-low expansion glass. To keep the mirror's weight to a minimum it consisted of inch-thick top and bottom plates sandwiching a honeycomb lattice. Perkin-Elmer simulated microgravity by supporting the mirror on both sides with 138 rods that exerted varying amounts of force. This ensured that the mirror's final shape would be correct and to specification when finally deployed. Mirror polishing continued until May 1981. NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin-Elmer's managerial structure, and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget. To save money, NASA halted work on the back-up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984.[28] The mirror was completed by the end of 1981; it was washed using 2,400 gallons (9,100 L) of hot, deionized water and then received a reflective coating of aluminum 65 nm-thick and a protective coating of magnesium fluoride 25 nm-thick.[22][29]

Construction of Hubble. The optical metering truss and secondary baffle are visible.

Doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin-Elmer's competence on a project of this importance, as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate. In response to a schedule described as "unsettled and changing daily", NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985. Perkin-Elmer's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter, and at times delays reached one day for each day of work. NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until March and then September 1986. By this time, the total project budget had risen to US$1.175 billion.[30]

[àtúnṣe] Spacecraft systems

The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge. It would have to withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth's shadow, which would cause major changes in temperature, while being stable enough to allow extremely accurate pointing of the telescope. A shroud of multi-layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable, and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit. Within the shell, a graphite-epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned.[31] Because graphite composites are hygroscopic, there was a risk that water vapor absorbed by the truss while in Lockheed's clean room would later be expressed in the vacuum of space; the telescope's instruments would be covered in ice. To reduce that risk, a nitrogen gas purge was performed before launching the telescope into space.[32]

Exploded view of the Hubble Telescope.

While construction of the spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments would be housed proceeded somewhat more smoothly than the construction of the OTA, Lockheed still experienced some budget and schedule slippage, and by the summer of 1985, construction of the spacecraft was 30% over budget and three months behind schedule. An MSFC report said that Lockheed tended to rely on NASA directions rather than take their own initiative in the construction.[33]

[àtúnṣe] Initial instruments

Àyọkà orí ọ̀rọ̀: Wide Field and Planetary Camera, Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph, High Speed Photometer, Faint Object Camera, àti Faint Object Spectrograph

When launched, the HST carried five scientific instruments: the Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC), Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS), High Speed Photometer (HSP), Faint Object Camera (FOC) and the Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS). WF/PC was a high-resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations. It was built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest. The instrument contained eight charge-coupled device (CCD) chips divided between two cameras, each using four CCDs. Each CCD has a resolution of 0.64 megapixels.[34] The "wide field camera" (WFC) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution, while the "planetary camera" (PC) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips, giving it a greater magnification.[35]

The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet. It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90,000.[36] Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS, which were capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instruments on Hubble. Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon-counting digicons as their detectors. The FOC was constructed by ESA, while the University of California, San Diego and the Martin Marietta corporation built the FOS.[35]

The final instrument was the HSP, designed and built at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness. It could take up to 100,000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2% or better.[37]

HST's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument. Its three Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation, but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry; measurements accurate to within 0.0003 arcseconds have been achieved.[38]

[àtúnṣe] Ground support

Hubble's low orbit means many targets are visible for somewhat less than half of elapsed time, since they are blocked from view by the Earth for one-half of each orbit.
Àyọkà orí ọ̀rọ̀: Space Telescope Science Institute

The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and delivery of data products to astronomers. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) and is physically located in Baltimore, Maryland on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University, one of the 33 US universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium. STScI was established in 1981 [39] after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large. NASA had wanted to keep this function "in-house", but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment.[40][41] The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF), established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984, provides similar support for European astronomers.

One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope.[42] Hubble is in a low-Earth orbit so that it can be reached by the space shuttle for servicing missions, but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit. Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels, and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun (precluding observations of Mercury), Moon and Earth. The solar avoidance angle is about 50°, which is specified to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA. Earth and Moon avoidance is to keep bright light out of the FGSs and to keep scattered light from entering the instruments. If the FGSs are turned off, however, the Moon and Earth can be observed. Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat-fields for the WFPC1 instrument. There is a so-called continuous viewing zone (CVZ), at roughly 90 degrees to the plane of Hubble's orbit, in which targets are not occulted for long periods. Due to the precession of the orbit, the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks. Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30° of regions within the CVZ, the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations.

Because Hubble orbits in the upper atmosphere, its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable. The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors, and this means that Hubble's predicted position for six weeks' time could be in error by up to 4,000 km. Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance, as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance that the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed.[43]

Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, 48 km south of the STScI. Hubble's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble's Flight Operations Team.[44]

[àtúnṣe] Challenger disaster, delays, and eventual launch

By early 1986, the planned launch date of October that year looked feasible, but the Challenger accident brought the U.S. space program to a halt, grounding the space shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years. The telescope had to be kept in a clean room, powered up and purged with nitrogen, until a launch could be rescheduled. This costly situation (about $6 million per month) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher. This delay did allow time for engineers to perform extensive tests, swap out a possibly failure-prone battery, and make other improvements.[45] Furthermore, the ground software needed to control Hubble was not ready in 1986, and in fact was barely ready by the 1990 launch.[46]

Shuttle mission STS-31 lifts off, carrying Hubble into orbit.

Eventually, following the resumption of shuttle flights in 1988, the launch of the telescope was scheduled for 1990. On April 24, 1990, shuttle mission STS-31 saw Discovery launch the telescope successfully into its planned orbit.[47]

From its original total cost estimate of about US$400 million, the telescope had by now cost over $2.5 billion to construct. Hubble's cumulative costs up to this day are estimated to be several times higher still, with US expenditure estimated at between $4.5 and $6 billion, and Europe's financial contribution at €593 million (1999 estimate).[48]


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[àtúnṣe] Ìtọ́kasí

[àtúnṣe] Ìkíyèsí

  1. ↑ Lynn Jenner, Brian Dunbar. "The Hubble Story (page 2)". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/story/the_story_2.html. Retrieved 2010-06-02. 
  2. ↑ "STS-31". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-31.html. Retrieved March 7, 2012. 
  3. ↑ HST Program Office (2003) (PDF). Hubble Facts: HST Orbit Decay and Shuttle Re-boost. Goddard Space Flight Center. http://hubble.nasa.gov/a_pdf/news/facts/sm3b/fact_sheet_reboost.pdf. Retrieved 2009-05-12. 
  4. ↑ Amiko Kauderer (26 March 2009). "Space Shuttle Mission Overview — STS-125: The Final Visit". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/hst_sm4/overview.html. Retrieved 2009-05-02. 
  5. ↑ SYNPHOT User's Guide, version 5.0, Space Telescope Science Institute, p. 27
  6. ↑ "NASA's Great Observatories". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_NASA_Great_Observatories_PS.html. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  7. ↑ H. Oberth (1923). Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen. R. Oldenbourg-Verlay. 
  8. ↑ Spitzer, L., "Report to Project Rand: Astronomical Advantages of an Extra-Terrestrial Observatory", reprinted in NASA SP-2001-4407: Exploring the Unknown, Chapter 3, Document III-1, p. 546.
  9. ↑ "Lyman Spitzer, Jr.". Caltech. Archived from the original on March 27, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080327091202/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/about/spitzer.shtml. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  10. ↑ Baum, W. A. àti Johnson, F. S. àti Oberly, J. J. àti Rockwood, C. C. àti Strain, C. V. àti Tousey, R. (November 1946). "Solar Ultraviolet Spectrum to 88 Kilometers". Phys. Rev (American Physical Society) 70 (9–10): 781–782. Bibcode 1946PhRv...70..781B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.70.781. 
  11. ↑ "The First Orbiting Solar Observatory". heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 26 June 2003. https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/missions/oso1.html. Retrieved 25 September 2011. 
  12. ↑ "OAO". NASA. http://nasascience.nasa.gov/missions/oao. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  13. ↑ Spitzer, History of the Space Telescope, p. 32.
  14. ↑ Spitzer, History of the Space Telescope, pp. 33–34.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Spitzer, History of the Space Telescope, p. 34.
  16. ↑ "Memorandum of Understanding Between The European Space Agency and The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration", reprinted in NASA SP-2001-4407: Exploring the Unknown, Chapter 3, Document III-29, p. 671.
  17. ↑ "A Chronology of the Hubble Space Telescope". NASA. http://history.nasa.gov/hubble/chron.html. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  18. ↑ "The path to the Hubble Space Telescope". NASA. Archived from the original on May 8, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080508195855/http://hubble.nasa.gov/overview/conception-part3.php. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  19. ↑ Dunar, pp. 487–488.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Dunar, p. 489.
  21. ↑ "Hubble: The Case of the Single-Point Failure" (PDF). Science Magazine. 1990-08-17. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/249/4970/735.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Robberto, M. and Sivaramakrishnan, A. and Bacinski, J.J. and Calzetti, D. and Krist, J.E. and MacKenty, J.W. and Piquero, J. and Stiavelli, M. (2000). "The Performance of HST as an Infrared Telescope" (PDF). Proc. SPIE 4013: 386–393. doi:10.1117/12.394037. http://www.stsci.edu/hst/wfc3/documents/published/spie4013386.pdf. 
  23. ↑ Allen report, p. 3–4.
  24. ↑ "Losing Bid Offered 2 Tests on Hubble". The New York Times. Associated Press. July 28, 1990. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEEDF1731F93BA15754C0A966958260. Retrieved April 26, 2008. 
  25. ↑ "Hubble Space Telescope Stand-in Gets Starring Role". NASA. 2001-09-21. Archived from the original on February 26, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080226075115/http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/news-release/releases/2001/h01-185.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  26. ↑ "Backup Mirror, Hubble Space Telescope". NASM. http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?id=A20010288000. 
  27. ↑ "2.4m Observatory Technical Note". New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. January 1, 2008. http://www.mro.nmt.edu/2.4m/doc-public/OTN-Overview.html. Retrieved April 26, 2008. 
  28. ↑ Dunar, p. 496
  29. ↑ Ghitelman, David, The Space Telescope, Michael Friedman Publishing, New York, 1987, p.32
  30. ↑ Dunar, p. 504.
  31. ↑ "Hubble Space Telescope Systems". Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on March 17, 2003. http://web.archive.org/web/20030317035553/http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/service/gallery/fact_sheets/spacesci/hst3-01/hubble_space_telescope_systems.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  32. ↑ Ghitelman, David, The Space Telescope, Michael Friedman Publishing, New York, 1987, p. 50
  33. ↑ Dunar, p. 508.
  34. ↑ "WFPC2". HubbleSite. http://hubblesite.org/the_telescope/nuts_.and._bolts/instruments/wfpc2/. Retrieved 2012-05-18. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Àdàkọ:Cite techreport 40 MB PDF file.
  36. ↑ Brandt J.C. et al. (1994). "The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph: Instrument, goals, and science results". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 106: 890–908. Bibcode 1994PASP..106..890B. doi:10.1086/133457. 
  37. ↑ Bless R.C., Walter L.E., White R.L. (1992), High Speed Photometer Instrument Handbook, v 3.0, STSci
  38. ↑ Àdàkọ:Cite conference
  39. ↑ Space Telescope Science Institute - AURA
  40. ↑ Dunar, pp. 486–487.
  41. ↑ Nancy Grace Roman, "Exploring the Universe: Space-Based Astronomy and Astrophysics", in NASA SP-2001-4407: Exploring the Unknown Chapter 3, p. 536.
  42. ↑ Primer, Chapter 2.
  43. ↑ Diane Karakla, Editor and Susan Rose, Technical Editor (2004). HST Primer for Cycle 14.
  44. ↑ "Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 4 Space Telescope Operations Control Center" (PDF). NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/206047main_STOCC-FS-2007-09-090_12_4.pdf. 
  45. ↑ Tatarewicz, SP-4219, p. 371.
  46. ↑ John Wilford (April 9, 1990). "Telescope Is Set to Peer at Space and Time". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE3D6153AF93AA35757C0A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2009-01-19. 
  47. ↑ "STS-31". NASA. http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-31/mission-sts-31.html. Retrieved 2008-04-26. 
  48. ↑ "The European Homepage for the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope — Frequently Asked Questions". http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/faq.html. Retrieved 2007-01-10. 
  49. ↑ Spitzer, Lyman. "1979QJRAS..20...29S Page 29". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society (Articles.adsabs.harvard.edu) 20: 29. Bibcode 1979QJRAS..20...29S. 

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